A list of Jewish communities in Italy, 1671

The Universal History devotes a whole section to the “Dispersion of the Jews”. Below is a snapshot of communities in Italy. This might be limited to Spanish and Portuguese, excluding the indigenous Italian Jews.

"The reader may further consult the last will of Zachariah a Porto, a rich Jewish merchant of Urbino, that died at Florence, an. 1671, after he had compiled a concordance on the comments of the thalmud, which he left at his death to the rabbies at Rome, and his library to the academy of it. He bequeathed moreover 24,000 piastres to his nation; one-fourth part of which he divided between the academies of Leghorn, Venice, Jerusalem, and of the Holy Land. The other 18,000 piastres were to be distributed to serve for dowry to the Jewish daughters of the synagogues of Rome, Ferrara, Ancona, Urbino which was his native place, Pesaro, Cesano, Venice, Padua, Verona, Rovigo, Florence, Siena, Pisa, Leghorn, Mantua, Modena, and Reggio; which shews how numberous they are still in Italy."

The modern part of an universal history. 1759. Page 409

French analysis of Jewish commerce, 1741

The French analysis below says that the Jews (by which they mean Spanish and Portuguese Jews) are regarded as clever but untrustworthy. The analysis focused on Amsterdam and Livorno, not even mentioning London, Hamburg or Salonica (or Bordeaux!).

They estimate there are around five thousand Sephardim in Amsterdam, and that they have three quarters of the Dutch North African trade, especially at the ports of Salé, Saphia[?] and SainteCroix [?]. I guess that SainteCroix was once a Christian enclave. The Jews bought what the Barbary pirates had captured from Christian ships, and resold it in Amsterdam. I am dubious about this claim as it seems inconsistent with Amsterdam notarial records.

There are estimated to be more that ten thousand Jews in Livorno, much loved by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and with a beautiful synagogue. The Jews have 90% of the trade, while the French, Italians, Dutch, English and Armenians have only 10% between them. Again, this doesn't ring true.

I have the impression that the authors got their information from someone with a particular axe to grind. Trade with the Americas, Baltic or Turks isn't even mentioned.

Les Juifs ont la réputation d’être très-habiles dans le commerce, mais aussi ils font soupçonnés de ne le pas faire avec toute la probité & la fidélité possible.

Quoiqu'il en soit de ce reproche, il est certain que les Nations même qui font le plus prévenues contre les Juifs, non-seulement les souffrent parmi elles, mais semblent même se piquer d'en apprendre les secrets du négoce, & d'en partager avec eux les profits.

II est vrai que plusieurs des Souverains de l'Europe Chrétienne ne les ont reçus dans leurs Etats, qu'à condition de porter une marque extérieure, pour les distinguer de leurs autres Sujets ; mais il y a aussi quelques Souverains qui ne les regardent point autrement que le reste des Bourgeois de leurs Villes , & qui n'y mettent de différence que par le plus ou le moins d'utilité qu'ils en retirent par rapport au commerce.

Les deux principaux établissemens que les Juifs ont dans les Etats des Princes Chrétiens, font celui d'Amsterdam & celui de Livourne.

A Amsterdam ils font comme partagés en deux tribus différentes; l'une des Juifs Portugais, au nombre de près de cinq mille; & l'autte des Juifs Allemands, qui ne font gueres moins de douze cens. Les uns & les autres sont riches, & se mêlent de toute forte de commerce , particulièrement de celui de la Banque; mais les Portugais font les plus accrédités , soit pour le change , soit pour les entreprises du négoce de marchandises au dedans & au dehors.

Entr'autres commerces, ce sont les Juifs Portugais d'Amsterdam qui font presque tout celui de Barbarie -, & il n'y a guetes qu'eux qui ayent part aux trois ou quatre vaisseaux Hollandois qui y vont tous les ans; tout ce commerce se faisant entr’eux & les Juifs des Echelles de cette Côte, particulièrement de Salé, de Saphia & de SainteCroix, dont la principale attention est d'acheter les prises que font les Corsaires fur les Chrétiens, pour les revendre ensuite aux Juifs d'Amsterdam.

Ce sont ordinairement ces prises rachetées qui font les principaux retours de ces derniers : & ils font si habiles, qu'après en avoir déguisé les marchandises, soit en les mêlant avec d'autres, soit en les remballant d'une autre manière, soit en leur mettant d'autres marques, qu'ils ne craignent point d'aller les revendre dans quelques Ports de Portugal, & souvent même aux Marchands fur lesquels les prises avoient été faites.

Les Juifs de Livourne semblent être encore plus favorisés du Grand Duc, que ceux d'Amsterdam ne le font des Bourguemaîtres d'Amsterdam.

Non-seulement ils y ont une superbe Synagogue , où ils font les exercices de leur Religion en toute liberté, mais encore le Duc Ferdinand qui les y a établis, leur a accordé une Jurisdiction civile & criminelle qui leur est propre, dont eux-mêmes ont le pouvoir de créer les Magistrats , & de laquelle il n'y a appel que pardevant le Grand Duc , en cas de mal jugé.

On estime que les Juifs de Livourne y font présentement au nombre de plus de dix mille ; & ils ont une si grande part dans le Commerce qui se fait dans cette Ville célèbre, qu'on y respecte en quelque sorte leur jour de Sabbat ; personne ne se trouvant sur la place le samedi, & ne s'y faisant aucune affaire.

On estime que s'il se fait pour cent mille écu9 de commerce au Levant par les Marchands de Livourne, il y en a pourquarre-vingt-dix-huit mille pour les Juifs, & seulement deux mille écus qui le partagent entre les François, les Italiens, les Hollandois, les Anglois & Arméniens établis dans cette Ville.

Ce sont aussi les Juifs qui pour la plupart font les fonctions de Censaux ou de Courtiers. Vojez CENSAL.

On parle en plusieurs endroits de ce Dictionnaire du Commerce que les Juifs font dans le reste de l'Europe , en Asie & en Afrique. Voyez. l'Etat général du Commerce , Terne I.

Source : Jacques Savary des Bruslons, Philemon-Louis Savary, Jacques Estienne. Dictionnaire universel de commerce. 1741

King of Denmark visits Livorno synagogue, 1709

No doubt a brilliant PR move by King Frederick IV of Denmark, whose principal enemies were Protestant, not Catholic. I am sure the visit helped keep the Jewish merchants in the Danish, rather than Swedish, camp.

"The Jews have a handsome Synagogue in this City [Leghorn/Livorno]. The King of Denmark being there in the Year 1709, would not go to any of the Roman Catholick Churches, but went to the Synagogue, as they say; of which they keep a Memorial in an Inscription on the Stair-case which goes up to it."

Edward Wright (Esq.). Some observations made in travelling: through France, Italy, &c. 1730. Page 373

Jews of Livorno, 1766

INDEED the Jews and Armenians are generally brokers and factors for all nations at Leghorn [Livorno]. Their brokerage-fees are half per cent, both for sales and purchases: they have half per 1000 for exchanges, and a fourth per cent, for insurances of entry.
…
THE number of inhabitants within the walls are reckoned 40,000, including 10,000 Jews*. The streets are very regular, broad, and well paved ; and there are a great number of good buildings, especially in that part called New Venice.

* Other say, there are 18,000 Jews at Leghorn, which is called their paradise; for, except living by themselves in one particular part of it be reckoned a hardship, they enjoy all manner of freedom; without any ignominious mark of distinction. Keysler, p. 392

Source: John Northall. Travels through Italy. 1766.

Spanish Prince tries to attract Jewish merchants to Naples, 1740

Naples was conquered by the Spanish prince, the Duke of Parma (future Charles III of Spain, pictured). He was crowned King of Naples and Sicily in 1735. The proclamation below, dated 1740, appears to have been a serious attempt to attract Jewish merchants, possibly from Livorno. He was offering freedom of worship, freedom of movement, freedom of trade, immunity from extradition to face Inquisition persecution and numerous other rights that must have been utterly shocking to conservative opinion back in Spain.

Given that he was a future king of Spain (albeit a Bourbon, and great-grandson of Louis XIV of France) it is remarkable that he was making a play for Jewish business just twenty after the Inquisition killing-machine was at the peak of its activities. It suggests Charles was, at least, was pragmatic and brave. He later, unsuccessfully, tried to modernise Spain.

Whatever his good intentions, the Jews didn’t take the bait. This is hardly surprising given the context, but it raises a number of historical “what ifs”. I like Charles III.

On the Trade of Naples

THIS Capital of the Kingdom of the same Name, is a Place of great Trade, and the Goodness of its Port attracts vast Numbers of foreign Vessels to it, but in order still to increase its Commerce, and raise it to the highest Pitch possible, Don Carlos, the present King, has invited the Jews to settle there, by granting them several very great and singular Privileges, as will appear by the following Edict published on the Third of Februarys 1740, by Order of his Sicilian Majesty, viz.

I. It is granted to all Merchants or others of the Hebrew Nation, a full and absolute Safe-guard, Faculty and Permission, to come, remain, traffick, pass on,, or stay, with or without their Families, in our Kingdoms and States, as also to depart, and return, without any Obstacle, both in regard of their Effects, and Persons; and this for the Term of fifty Years next following, to commence the first Day of this; declaring that the fiftieth Year being expired, there shall yet be granted five others, during which, if it be the good Pleasure of his Majesty, or his Successors, to abrogate the present Licence at the End of the fifth Year, they may freely, and without Hindrance, regulate all their Affairs, &c. we willing, that no extraordinary Duty be exacted from them on the Departure of their Ships, Vessels, Horses, Carriages, &c.

II. If any Hebrews coming from other Kingdoms or Countries to ours, shall be accused in those States from whence they came, of having committed some enormous Action, or Crime there, for which they have been prosecuted ; as also in cafe that they were disguised as Christians, and had feigned to be of this Religion, we annul and make void the Causes of such Accusation, and will not permit that they be called to account for it, in our Dominions, on any Pretext whatsoever; in fine, we grant to the said Hebrews, the free Exercise of their Ceremonies, Solemnities, Use and Customs, according to the Jewish Laws, prohibiting their wearing publickly Cloaks, or other distinguishing Dress, under any Denomination whatsoever.

III. That the Hebrews shall not be subject to any Registry or consular Jurisdiction, nor to any Company of Tradesmen; but if any Difference arises between a Christian and a Jew, on some Affair concerning Arts and Trades, the Judge Delegate, who shall be named for this Purpose, shall be deemed a competent one, and decide it.

IV. We grant to the Hebrews and their Families, who shall establish their Residence in our States, to enjoy, in respect of their Commerce, either at home or abroad, the same Privileges, Franchises, and Immunities, which the other Citizens or Inhabitants of the said Cities or Places, do, or may enjoy.

V. That all their Moveables or Ornaments making a Part of their Apparel, acquired either within or without our Dominions, shall be exempt from paying any Customs, or Duty of Passage, at their Importation or Exportation.

VI. There shall be a Judge Delegate at Naples, Palermo, and Messina; and a Magistrate appointed at Messina as at Naples, who shall judge of the Differences that shall arise between a Christian and a Jew, or between two yews, in case that the Crimes merit a severer Chastisement than confining or banishing; and in other Cases, that they be carried exclusively before their People of the Law, and if they are wronged or aggrieved, they may recur to the Royal Protection of his Majesty.

VII. This Article regards the Punishment to be inflicted on the Jews, who shall frequent or keep Company with either Christians, Turk, or Moor.

VIII. This is to prevent the false Accusations, which may be intended against the Jews.

IX. If there happens any disastrous Accident to a Hebrew, that should oblige him to fail, and that he falls into Penury, so as to disable him from paying his Debts; in this Cafe the Merchandize, Bills of Exchange, and other Effects, or Money appertaining to any Correspondent, shall not be stopt to satisfy his said Debts.

X. Is relative to the Dowry of married Women.

XI. On the Subject of Sequestrations obtained against the Jews.

XII. Concerning the Validity of the Securities which the Jews shall give, when they shall be obliged to leave the Kingdom.

XIII. Permits the Hebrews to have all Sorts of Books, after being (however) inspected by their Delegate.

XIV. and XV. Favour the Jewish Physicians.

XVI. Grants them a publick Synagogue.

XVII. Leaves them at Liberty in regard of their Wills.

XVIII. In regard to Contracts of Purchase and Sale, or in Trade, in relation to the Jews in our Dominions, the Sales shall not be held as perfected, till after a Writing has passed between the Buyer and Seller, under their Hands, and confirmed by a Notary, or two Witnesses ; provided that if between Merchants in the Retail Way, at Fairs, Markets, &c. they be made without these Formalities, they shall have all Force, according to the usual Custom and Law, in regard to the other Inhabitants.

XXV. We grant to the Jews all the Favours, Privileges, and Faculties, enjoyed by the other Merchants of this Kingdom; they may exercise all Sorts of Trades, and Traffick; but it shall not be permitted them, after the Manner of our Subjects, to cry about the Streets, old Cloaths to fell: Though the Jews have Leave to sell and buy every one in particular, in his own House or Shop; none of them or their Family shall be obliged to wear any Mark that they may be known by.

XXXI. The Merchandize of the Jews, and of their Correspondents, and their Persons, coming to any Place whatsoever in our Ports, shall be free, as well in their Merchandizes and Persons, as the Ship which brings them, on Payment of the ordinary Customs, Gabelles, and Taxes, even when they have no Passport, provided that it appears by the Vessel's Documents, that it was destined with its Goods for one of our Ports, and no Magistrate or Officer shall molest either the Ships or any of the Effects; but on the contrary, shall observe our present Privilege, and in case of Disobedience, shall be punished, and all the Merchandizes restored to the Jews, with Charges and Expences, without any Hindrance real or personal.

XXXV. We grant to the Jews six Warehouses for their Use in the Customhouse of Naples Rent-free, since we consider them as our own Subjects; they may have also the like, in the other Customhouses of bur Kingdoms for their Conveniency, equally with the other Burgesses and Inhabitants, in Proportion to their Number and Trade, according to the Informations that their Declaration shall give in; and in case that the Magazines of the Customhouse are not sufficiently large to contain their Goods, it shall be permitted the Jews to hire others to their Liking, under the Guard and Inspection of the Customhouse Officers, enjoying the Privilege of Portos Francos, as if their Effects were inclosed in the Offices of the Customhouse.

Source : Wyndham Beawes, Jacques Savary, Jacques Savary des Brûlons. Lex mercatoria rediviva, or, The merchant's directory. Page 610-611

Livorno

On 10 June 1593 Jews received rights in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. In showing the Jews more respect than their rival states, the Medici attracted Jewish settlement and commerce to the city of Livorno (then called Leghorn in English). Tuscany quickly became a player in the East-West Mediterranean trade that had formerly been dominated by Genoa and Venice. Regardless of who dominated the seas – Dutch, French or English – the trade still flowed.

I used to think that the decline of this trade was a consequence of all the wars. The Mediterranean was no longer safe for shipping. I begin to wonder if the absolute and relative economic decline of the Ottoman Empire was the real cause. Once, spices and other exotic items came from the eastern Mediterranean. By the 18th Century there were trade routes that circumvented the Ottoman Empire. Perhaps the defeat at Vienna in 1683 marked the moment at which the Turks went into decline. Economic growth in Europe and new markets in the Americas and Asia meant that the Turkish trade became a backwater. For Jews, who operated as middlemen in this trade, the options were to accept this change in circumstances or leave. The Jews of Livorno lived by this trade. Certainly a number of Livornese Jews moved to Amsterdam and London in the late 17th and early 18th Centuries. Others seem to have moved to Arab ports such as Alexandria or Tunis, perhaps to use their skills in the local market.

Maybe the last gasp of Livorno as a major port was the Napoleonic Wars. I have seen that Tunis was France’s main market in Africa, and it seems likely that (notwithstanding the British naval blockade) much of this trade passed through Livorno.

The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was overrun by the French revolutionary armies in 1799. It was then abolished. Between 1801 and 1807, Livorno was part of the short-lived Kingdom of Etruria, a French client-state. That state was then abolished, and territory became part of metropolitan France. Livorno was made capital of the new département of Méditerranée which, incidentally, included the island of Elba to which Napoleon was exiled in 1814.

The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was reconstituted after Napoleon’s defeat. The Government was overthrown by a popular revolution in 1859. Livorno was briefly part of the short-lived United Provinces of Central Italy, but voted for annexation by Piedmont-Sardinia in 1860. Italy was unified around Piedmont-Sardinia. With Italian unification, Livorno became just one of many Italian ports.

The image of Livorno above is somewhat romanticised, but note the two men in the right foreground. One merchant is in European dress and the other oriental.

Jews in the Mediterranean, 1818

Letter from Rev. William Jowett to the London Society for Promoting Christianity amongst the Jews. Malta, August 4, 1818. I think he gives at interesting insight into the state of Jewish communities in the Mediterranean at the end of the Napoleonic Wars.

“When I was at Corfu, in the autumn of 1816, I was very intimate with the most learned of the Jews in those parts, rabbi Lazzaro Mordos. He is an old man, nearly blind, and quite deaf, a physician; … He has no Hebrew books of English typography. For this part of the world, Venice formerly, but latterly Vienna, have been the chief place for Hebrew printing: and still more recently, Leghorn.

[He comments on how well the Jews in Ionia got on with the French, and that they are now protected from the Greeks by the British.]
…

I have been credibly informed, that the condition upon which the Jews enjoyed toleration at Rome, was – beside payment of money – an attendance upon a weekly lecture delivered by some learned priest in one of the churches; in which the question between the Jews and Christians was regularly discussed. The attendance of the Jews residing at Rome was obligatory:

…

I would here observe, that beside the thousand Jews at Corfu, they are numerous in Albania, Thessaly, Venice and northwards towards Constantinople. At Salonica they are said by some, to be more numerous even than the Turks and Christians put together. At Yannina, the metropolis of Ali Pasha, they have much influence, a Jew being the treasurer of that Pasha; liable, of course, to heavy exactions, all which however that oppressed people have too long learned to bear. In Athens, where I was lately, they informed me there are no Jews; but in the neighbourhood, in Livadia and northward, they abound.

In Smyrna, the Jews and Armenians are the principal brokers to the Frank merchants, and discharge their trust in such a manner as to raise their character somewhat high. I have heard merchants speak with great respect of their fidelity, as well as diligence. The number of these brokers, however, must be small in comparison with the bulk of the Jewish people there. In must also strike you, that there are often circumstances in which it is more for a person’s immediate interest to be honest, than to be roguish. It is to be lamented that the Jews have seldom been dealt with on this footing: they have been unfairly treated, and have seldom enjoyed the equal rights of humanity.

…

At Scio [Chios] there are not above 60 or 70 Jews; and these live for the sake of security within the walls of the Turkish fortress, They fled thither during some disturbances, in which the Christians were ill using them; and having found safety there, they do not stir out, but give themselves to handicraft trades.

…

The number of Jews in Malta is at present very small; not more I am told than fifteen or twenty families.

…

It is not thus with the Jews of Leghorn and Triest. As far as I have seen or heard of these, they have a liberality bordering on infidelity; something very much of the Sadducee character. There may be 15,000 at Leghorn; they are rich and enterprising. They have a synagogue one of the most splendid in the world. They print largely here, and in all respects enjoy great liberty. At Trieste they had about three years ago a a distinguishing mark of the emperor’s favour: he visited their synagogue in person, which event they commemorated by a Hebrew inscription.

I have received several very interesting notices respecting this people from Dr. Richardson, an English physician, just returned from his travels in Egypt and Syria. At Cairo they have seven synagogues; at Jerusalem they have two, but poor-looking. At Damascus, the population of which he thinks to be upwards of 300,000 the Jews are numerous. At Tiberias – once so highly famed for Hebrew literature – he visited a college which still exists there. Here he found five rabbies (sic), living apparently in learned leasure, with a library of no mean size, well supplied with Hebrew Scriptures and commentators. One of these was in great repute for learning. … The late Djezza, that terrible character, the Pasha of Acre, had a Jew for his principle Minister: with his well known brutality he cut off the man’s nose, put out one eye, and otherwise mutilated and disfigured his face.

…

I will add an article which I received from an English gentleman, intimately acquainted with the state of that regency [Tripoli]. “Their number in Tripoli is estimated at 3,000; they had seven synagogues, and pay an annual tax to the Bashaw of about two thousand dollars. They are governed by their Caid, who is appointed by the prince, but whose power extends to the punishment only of offences, not capital. The Jews in the vicinity are likewise under his authority; but those of Bengazi and Derne have their respective Caids. The number in those places may be reckoned at 1000. The rabbies in Tripoli are about twenty, who are paid from three to four dollars a week. In the vicinity of Tripoli (called the Gardens) there may be about twenty Jews, who have no synagogue, but pray in their houses. An annual visit is paid by a rabbi from Jerusalem, who is appointed by the chief of the holy land for the purpose of collecting money; and who may get in Tripoli a thousand dollars. They have synagogues at Arzon, Tagioura, Tajur, Mesurata, Bengazi and Derne. Their printed books they have from Leghorn, their manuscripts from Tunis.”

Report on the Jews in Tunis, 1818

Extract of a Letter from Dr Cleardo Naudi of Malta to the Rev. C. S. Hawtrey, June 20, 1818, printed in the The eleventh report of the London Society for Promoting Christianity amongst the Jews.

He reports that there were around 12,000 Jews in Tunis, divided between the Leghorn [Livorno] Jews and Tunesian (sic) Jews. Tunis had been the main African market for French goods during the Napoleonic Wars, and the Jewish community had done well. There was little interaction between the two communities and (surprise, surprise!) the Livornese looked down on Tunisians.

“The first, or Leghornese, do not exceed the number of seven hundred. They are governed by three Parnassi or Massare, and like those of the Jews of Leghorn, are elective, and have no duties but such as related to their religious ceremonies. Their liturgy is that of the Spanish synagogue; they are for the most part natives of Tunis, and consider themselves the descendants of the exiled families of Spain during the persecutions in that kingdom. They wear the European dress, and those how have not the means of doing so wear the hat for distinction. They have no dealings with the Tunesian Jews, and, during a period of seven ages, they count but four inter-marriages – in an event of this nature taking place, the party is excluded from their synagogues, and considered as one who has degraded himself. – They have also a separate market. Corporal punishments seldom occur, as is daily the case with the Tunesian Jews. Theirs are generally of a pecuniary nature.”

They did not "consider" themselves the descendants of the exiled families of Spain. That is exactly what they were!

I like the idea of the poorer community members in Arab clothes and tricorn hats.