A report on the life of Uriel Acosta

A report on the life of Uriel Acosta:

"ACOSTA (Ariel) a Portugueza gentleman, in the sixteenth century: he was bred up in the romish religion, but afterwards embraced the Jewish, and was circumcised at Amsterdam. He soon perceived that the morals and rites of the Jews were not comfortable to the laws of Moses; upon which occasion it was impossible for him to be silent: upon this, he was excommunicated. He writ a book of his own vindication, wherein he shews, that the rites and traditions of the Pharisees clash directly with the writings of Moses. He had scarce begun this work, when he embraced the principles of the Sadducees. Acosta did not stop there; he imagined he had found solid reason to convince himself, that the law of Moses was merely of human invention. He returned again to the Jewish church, and retracted all he had written. Some time after, he was impeach’d by a nephew, of not observing the Jewish laws, either with respect to eating or other points; and for this was terribly persecuted. After failing in an attempt to kill his chief enemy, he shot himself."

Miller, Historical, genealogical, and classical dictionary. 1743

I think it is interesting that a Protestant, Bible-reading, commentator puts emphasis on circumcision as a meaningful equivalent of baptism, whereas the Inquisition would focus on some vague cultural practice, such as what day someone is alleged to clean their house.

Also, an encyclopaedia such as Miller's COULD NOT have been published in Spain. The Inquisition would have immediately arrested the publisher - who is simply sharing information and opinions - for heretical propositions. 

We can speculate about the differences between the mentalities of a Catholic and Protestant gentleman of the period. The former is supposed to conform to dogma and, even if he wanted, would have a problem finding books containing any alternative views. The latter is presented with the information and able to form his own opinions. 

Of course, France is always the exception to the rule, being a Catholic country but encouraging Enlightenment values (which, of course, ended in an anti-clerical Revolution). It seems obvious (to me!!) that the Enlightenment countries would pull ahead commercially and scientifically, while the Inquisition countries would fall behind.

The Inquisition - An Overview

To dismiss the Inquisition as a bunch of reactionary religious nuts is too simplistic. The Inquisition was a church body with the task of suppressing heresy, meaning beliefs other than those sanctioned by the Catholic Church. It is worth noting that the early Church tolerated diversity of opinion and used persuasion to bring people back to orthodox beliefs.

The first significant outing of the Inquisition was the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars, a sect in what is now southern France who advocated a purer form of Christianity. The Pope outsourced control of the local Inquisition to the King of France. The Kingdom of France was then one territory amongst several in what we now call France. By the end of the crusade, when the Cathars had been crushed, France had absorbed huge amounts of new territory in the Languedoc, often replacing local aristocrats with Frenchmen.

Catholic monarchs earned their legitimacy through Papal recognition so had an interest in suppressing theological opposition to the Papacy. The Medieval Catholic church was morally and financially corrupt and saw frequent outbursts of opposition from people wanting to purify the institution. Some of these, such as the Hussites, were serious challenges. The Papacy more or less kept the lid on dissent until many northern German princes supported the Reformation of Martin Luther.

In Italy, the Popes used the Roman Inquisition as a weapon in their fight for political supremacy against the [Holy Roman] Emperor.

In 1453 the Turkish army captured Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, creating the possibility of an Islamic conquest of Christendom. In the far west of Europe, the Christian kingdoms of the northern Iberian peninsula had slowly conquered their southern Islamic rivals, forcing many Muslims and Jews to convert. The two main Christian kingdoms, Castile and Aragon, joined together in a dynastic marriage. The monarchs had limited power over the autonomous cities and regions, and aristocrats with their own private armies.

I think maybe Spain was different from much of Europe in that it had three significant religious groups – Christian, Muslim and Jewish – and that national identity was fused with religious identity. The mob demanded discrimination against converted Jews and their descendants – the idea of purity of blood – which had no place in Catholic doctrine, but was accepted. The Inquisition only had authority over those who had converted to Catholicism (although later it implicitly recognised Protestant baptism as legitimate, so it could prosecute foreign-born Protestants).

The Inquisition in Spain was outsourced by the Papacy to the Monarchy, and was about the only national institution. I do not know the degree to which the Inquisition followed the Monarchy’s political agenda, but clearly a Spanish national identity emerged. Despite a number of eye-wateringly large bribes to the Vatican, the Inquisition was also established in Portugal. 

Within the Catholic Church the Inquisition came under the control of the Dominicans (an order of monks) who used it to bash their Franciscan rivals. The Inquisition controlled doctrine, so was immensely powerful in internal Church politics. Inquisitors – appointed by the Monarchy in Spain and Portugal - had some power over local bishops, often appointed by local aristocrats.

The Spanish and Portuguese Inquisition were self-funding out of property confiscated from their prisoners. Outside Iberia the Inquisition was clearly seen as unjust (for example, the secret denunciations and people not being tried in open court) and its officials experienced a number of popular revolts. I have the impression that the “Old Christian” majority in Spain and Portugal felt the Inquisition was on their side.

To be descended from heretics was itself a cause for suspicion of heresy, so New Christians (descendants of converted Jews) were an obvious and easy target. New Christians tended to be in commerce or the professions, the importance of which was not understood in a mercantilist economy. Targeting them was probably popular with ordinary people, who could feel superior to the ‘other’, while appearing to support Church doctrine and making a little money for the Monarchy. I sense there was also a political element, especially when Portugal broke away from Spain. The Portuguese identity of the victims was stressed.

Were the prisoners of the Inquisition authentic heretics in Catholic eyes? I suspect some were and many weren’t. Actually, I don’t think the “Jews” were a homogenous group. Maybe we can differentiate between the mega-wealthy who left Iberia around the turn of 16^th Century, those who were what me might describe as “middle class” and as tradesmen. I note that many New Christians remained in Spanish and Portuguese territory – or returned to it – when it was possible for them to live elsewhere. It may be that they had no choice, or that the Inquisition was seen as a risk of the job. I wonder if – as with the drug industry today – it was the less important people who got caught. Of course, once someone had been despoiled of their property and remained in Spain, they might be targeted again.

I note that when they had the opportunity, very many New Christians chose to assimilate into the general Catholic population.

The Inquisition was an organisation of individuals. I suspect some were sadistic and had mental health issues. Some probably genuinely believed they were helping their prisoners achieve salvation, a goal so important that the means justified the ends.

I plan to expand these thoughts on my Sephardic Genealogy website.

French analysis of Jewish commerce, 1741

The French analysis below says that the Jews (by which they mean Spanish and Portuguese Jews) are regarded as clever but untrustworthy. The analysis focused on Amsterdam and Livorno, not even mentioning London, Hamburg or Salonica (or Bordeaux!).

They estimate there are around five thousand Sephardim in Amsterdam, and that they have three quarters of the Dutch North African trade, especially at the ports of Salé, Saphia[?] and SainteCroix [?]. I guess that SainteCroix was once a Christian enclave. The Jews bought what the Barbary pirates had captured from Christian ships, and resold it in Amsterdam. I am dubious about this claim as it seems inconsistent with Amsterdam notarial records.

There are estimated to be more that ten thousand Jews in Livorno, much loved by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and with a beautiful synagogue. The Jews have 90% of the trade, while the French, Italians, Dutch, English and Armenians have only 10% between them. Again, this doesn't ring true.

I have the impression that the authors got their information from someone with a particular axe to grind. Trade with the Americas, Baltic or Turks isn't even mentioned.

Les Juifs ont la réputation d’être très-habiles dans le commerce, mais aussi ils font soupçonnés de ne le pas faire avec toute la probité & la fidélité possible.

Quoiqu'il en soit de ce reproche, il est certain que les Nations même qui font le plus prévenues contre les Juifs, non-seulement les souffrent parmi elles, mais semblent même se piquer d'en apprendre les secrets du négoce, & d'en partager avec eux les profits.

II est vrai que plusieurs des Souverains de l'Europe Chrétienne ne les ont reçus dans leurs Etats, qu'à condition de porter une marque extérieure, pour les distinguer de leurs autres Sujets ; mais il y a aussi quelques Souverains qui ne les regardent point autrement que le reste des Bourgeois de leurs Villes , & qui n'y mettent de différence que par le plus ou le moins d'utilité qu'ils en retirent par rapport au commerce.

Les deux principaux établissemens que les Juifs ont dans les Etats des Princes Chrétiens, font celui d'Amsterdam & celui de Livourne.

A Amsterdam ils font comme partagés en deux tribus différentes; l'une des Juifs Portugais, au nombre de près de cinq mille; & l'autte des Juifs Allemands, qui ne font gueres moins de douze cens. Les uns & les autres sont riches, & se mêlent de toute forte de commerce , particulièrement de celui de la Banque; mais les Portugais font les plus accrédités , soit pour le change , soit pour les entreprises du négoce de marchandises au dedans & au dehors.

Entr'autres commerces, ce sont les Juifs Portugais d'Amsterdam qui font presque tout celui de Barbarie -, & il n'y a guetes qu'eux qui ayent part aux trois ou quatre vaisseaux Hollandois qui y vont tous les ans; tout ce commerce se faisant entr’eux & les Juifs des Echelles de cette Côte, particulièrement de Salé, de Saphia & de SainteCroix, dont la principale attention est d'acheter les prises que font les Corsaires fur les Chrétiens, pour les revendre ensuite aux Juifs d'Amsterdam.

Ce sont ordinairement ces prises rachetées qui font les principaux retours de ces derniers : & ils font si habiles, qu'après en avoir déguisé les marchandises, soit en les mêlant avec d'autres, soit en les remballant d'une autre manière, soit en leur mettant d'autres marques, qu'ils ne craignent point d'aller les revendre dans quelques Ports de Portugal, & souvent même aux Marchands fur lesquels les prises avoient été faites.

Les Juifs de Livourne semblent être encore plus favorisés du Grand Duc, que ceux d'Amsterdam ne le font des Bourguemaîtres d'Amsterdam.

Non-seulement ils y ont une superbe Synagogue , où ils font les exercices de leur Religion en toute liberté, mais encore le Duc Ferdinand qui les y a établis, leur a accordé une Jurisdiction civile & criminelle qui leur est propre, dont eux-mêmes ont le pouvoir de créer les Magistrats , & de laquelle il n'y a appel que pardevant le Grand Duc , en cas de mal jugé.

On estime que les Juifs de Livourne y font présentement au nombre de plus de dix mille ; & ils ont une si grande part dans le Commerce qui se fait dans cette Ville célèbre, qu'on y respecte en quelque sorte leur jour de Sabbat ; personne ne se trouvant sur la place le samedi, & ne s'y faisant aucune affaire.

On estime que s'il se fait pour cent mille écu9 de commerce au Levant par les Marchands de Livourne, il y en a pourquarre-vingt-dix-huit mille pour les Juifs, & seulement deux mille écus qui le partagent entre les François, les Italiens, les Hollandois, les Anglois & Arméniens établis dans cette Ville.

Ce sont aussi les Juifs qui pour la plupart font les fonctions de Censaux ou de Courtiers. Vojez CENSAL.

On parle en plusieurs endroits de ce Dictionnaire du Commerce que les Juifs font dans le reste de l'Europe , en Asie & en Afrique. Voyez. l'Etat général du Commerce , Terne I.

Source : Jacques Savary des Bruslons, Philemon-Louis Savary, Jacques Estienne. Dictionnaire universel de commerce. 1741

Cayenne and Suriname

Is it true that the Portuguese government approved a Jewish colony?

THE SCATTERED PEOPLE.—In 1639, David Nasci, a Portuguese Jew, obtained from the Portuguese India Company authority to form a Jewish colony at Cayenne [today capital of French Guiana, South America]. On the conquest of Cayenne by the French, in 1644, the Jews retired to Surinam, where their numbers prodigiously increased.

The Church of England Magazine, 1862

Allegation of Sharp Practices by Jewish merchants trading from London, circa the 1630s

"Our merchants do much complain of some Portugal Jews here in London, that trade greatly for Spain, to their great prejudice. But this is not all: they do receive damage by them another way, as thus : a ship of London being laden with linen cloth at St. Malo, in France; this ship the French took, as she was homeward bound, and, searching what lading she had aboard, they find, by the bills of lading, some parcel of this linen cloth was consigned for Lisbon in Portugal, and to be first landed at Dover, to be shipped presently again to go for Spain. This landing of these French goods was only a deceit, to avoid the French king's edict, that no French commodity should go for Spain, under the penalty of forfeiture of the ship, and all the goods aboard her. This ship is carried to Boulogne, our merchants having near £6000 in her, which goods were to be brought up to London; but the other small parcels belonging to some Portugals have confiscated all. Our merchants complain ; but the French will not forego that advantage; so we lose all."

Cyprien (de Gamaches). The court and times of Charles the First. 1848
By

Patras and the Albanian trade, 1813

At various points Patras, situated on the northern Peloponnese on the Gulf of Corinth was ruled by the Genoese and Venetians. Apart from 1687–1715, when the Venetians re-established themselves, this area was ruled by the Turks and their vassals. Possibly the Jews arrived during the Venetian rule and remained.

"Patras is governed by a bey, subject to the pasha of the Morea; the town contains a great number of Jews, who are the principal commercial agents; almost all business in this way passes through their hands. France names a commercial agent who receives no salary, but all ships of the country which stop here make him some present; they also pay an anchorage, though it cannot be exacted. The drogmans are all Jews, who eagerly seek after an office which they know very well how to turn to a good account. To judge by one of these good people, by name Solomon, they do no great honour to the languages they pretend to speak: the French, as he called it, which he spoke was a terrible mix of the Provençal and Barbary languages, pronounced with so strange and discordant an accent, that it was no very easy matter to comprehend what he meant to say."

Pouqueville comments that French trade has done very well in Albania over the preceding ten years. The merchants of Ancona and Sinigaglia pass their shoddy products off as French. While the locals still prefer Venetian-supplied muskets from Brescia to the French product, the Jews can’t compete with the French. I suspect the situation changed within the year once formerly embargoed British products entered the market.

François Charles Hugues Laurent Pouqueville. Travels in the Morea, Albania, and other parts of the Ottoman empire. 1813

Livorno

On 10 June 1593 Jews received rights in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. In showing the Jews more respect than their rival states, the Medici attracted Jewish settlement and commerce to the city of Livorno (then called Leghorn in English). Tuscany quickly became a player in the East-West Mediterranean trade that had formerly been dominated by Genoa and Venice. Regardless of who dominated the seas – Dutch, French or English – the trade still flowed.

I used to think that the decline of this trade was a consequence of all the wars. The Mediterranean was no longer safe for shipping. I begin to wonder if the absolute and relative economic decline of the Ottoman Empire was the real cause. Once, spices and other exotic items came from the eastern Mediterranean. By the 18th Century there were trade routes that circumvented the Ottoman Empire. Perhaps the defeat at Vienna in 1683 marked the moment at which the Turks went into decline. Economic growth in Europe and new markets in the Americas and Asia meant that the Turkish trade became a backwater. For Jews, who operated as middlemen in this trade, the options were to accept this change in circumstances or leave. The Jews of Livorno lived by this trade. Certainly a number of Livornese Jews moved to Amsterdam and London in the late 17th and early 18th Centuries. Others seem to have moved to Arab ports such as Alexandria or Tunis, perhaps to use their skills in the local market.

Maybe the last gasp of Livorno as a major port was the Napoleonic Wars. I have seen that Tunis was France’s main market in Africa, and it seems likely that (notwithstanding the British naval blockade) much of this trade passed through Livorno.

The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was overrun by the French revolutionary armies in 1799. It was then abolished. Between 1801 and 1807, Livorno was part of the short-lived Kingdom of Etruria, a French client-state. That state was then abolished, and territory became part of metropolitan France. Livorno was made capital of the new département of Méditerranée which, incidentally, included the island of Elba to which Napoleon was exiled in 1814.

The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was reconstituted after Napoleon’s defeat. The Government was overthrown by a popular revolution in 1859. Livorno was briefly part of the short-lived United Provinces of Central Italy, but voted for annexation by Piedmont-Sardinia in 1860. Italy was unified around Piedmont-Sardinia. With Italian unification, Livorno became just one of many Italian ports.

The image of Livorno above is somewhat romanticised, but note the two men in the right foreground. One merchant is in European dress and the other oriental.

The Spanish and Portuguese Jews in Germany, 1825

The Portuguese and Spanish Jews, but especially the former, have long held a high rank among their nation. Persecution drove numbers of them, from time to time, to Germany, whither they carried with them considerable treasures, These they invested in the public funds of England, France and Holland; and hence they soon became distinguished for that ambiguous sort of speculation in the stocks, which is more allied to the practices of gambling than of honest trade. They have kept themselves in a great measure distinct from the German Jews, whom they look upon as an inferior race; and they form a separate congregation, with religious rites and ceremonies peculiar to themselves.

The Monthly Review article by M. Paul Van Hemert, translated from Dutch by Lewis Jackson. State of the Jews in the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century. London, 1825.